英语论文哪里有？本文得出如下结论：帕克斯的“红字戏剧”通过塑造“异化”的母亲、顺应天道的母亲以及“反母性”的母亲再现黑人母亲的生存体验，展现美国社会文化权力话语与母性之间的多元互动关系，以黑人母性书写的政治表征引发读者对美国社会历史文化以及价值理念进行反思,批判美国社会盛行的工具理性和种族主义,倡导对于真挚母性情感和价值理性的回归。
Chapter One Alienated Mothers
I.Demonized Unmarried Mothers
The phenomenon of unmarried mothers in 20th-century America was the result of acomplex social and historical process shaped by multiple layers of change.Thedevelopment of the sexual revolution,sexual liberation movements,industrialization,urbanization,economic inequality,poverty and the inadequacies of social support systemsall contributed to its emergence.Compared to white mothers,black mothers account for adisproportionately large percentage of unwed mothers due to the enduring impacts ofslavery,racial discrimination,intersecting class and gender biases.These unwed mothersoften face societal demonization due to the ambiguity of their identity.In literature andmedia,the“demonized mother”frequently appears,depicted as selfish,unfeeling,or harmful.This portrayal reinforces traditional maternal roles and gender norms.Thedemonized image first appears in Judith Butler’s gender theory.In Gender Trouble:Feminism and the Subversion of Identity,Butler introduces the concept of genderperformativity,arguing that“gender is not a fixed attribute but is constructed andmaintained through a series of repeated actions and performances.Maternal roles are thus asocially constructed gender performance”(Butler 1990:45).Maternal images can beidealized as angelic or demonized when mothers fail to meet societal expectations ofidealized motherhood.When mothers’behaviors or characteristics deviate from theseexpectations,they risk being labeled as“bad mothers”or“irresponsible mothers”.Butlerfurther notes that the angelization and demonization of motherhood are fundamentallyconnected to power.Societies idealize or demonize maternal images to maintain andreinforce gender norms and power structures.Thus,these depictions are not merelyreflections of individual identity but instruments of social control and cultural expression.
Chapter Two Mothers Conforming to the Heavenly Way
I.Answering the Natural Call of Maternal Love
“Women come to mothers”is the first sentence in The Reproduction of Mothering,clearly stating Nancy Chodorow’s position and expanding her viewpoint,“The role ofwomen as mothers is one of the most universal and enduring aspects of the gendereddivision of labor”(Chodorow 1978:3).For her,the maternal role deeply influences women’s lives,their ideologies,the reproduction of masculinity,gender inequality,and the formsof labor rights.Chodorow theoretically explains that women are responsible for caring forchildren.Psychologically,women desire to become mothers and seek psychologicalfulfillment through the maternal path.The role of mothering is a means of attainingpsychological satisfaction.As a mother,maternal love is generally considered an innate,inborn emotion,a view reflected in fields such as psychology,biology,and philosophy.From the perspective of evolutionary psychology,maternal love is the result of naturalselection.A mother’s care for her child aids the survival and reproduction of the offspring,thereby increasing the transmission of genes within a population.John Bowlb’s attachment theory states,“The early interactions between the infant and mother form a basic sense ofsecurity,and this attachment forms the foundation of maternal love”(Bowlby 1969).
Chapter Three Anti-Maternal Mothers
I.Resistance to the Name-of-Mother
As a system,motherhood encompasses a set of mechanisms and ideologies withspecific social objectives and enduring qualities,aims at regulating maternal behavior andestablishing particular norms.This system can systematically suppress and constrainwomen,and may even provoke maternal behaviors that resist the very concept ofmotherhood.However,as a personal experience,motherhood also has the potential toempower women.Women not only possess the capacity to nurture life but also the abilityto refuse to fulfill any maternal duties.In The Second Sex,Beauvoir offers a profoundcritique of traditional notions of motherhood.Her critique extends beyond motherhood to abroader exploration of the social position and roles of women.Beauvoir argues that“motherhood is not a natural or inevitable fate for women;it is a result of social andcultural constructions”(Beauvoir 1948:573).In other words,society shapes women intomothers through various means,and this role is imbued with high moral and emotionalvalue,which in turn limits women’s other possibilities.She also emphasizes thatmotherhood is often seen as a woman’s“duty”,and this view restricts women’s freedomand independence.Beauvoir contends that women should not be forced to become mothersbut should have the freedom to choose whether or not to do so.This freedom of choice ispart of women’s autonomy and an important aspect of their liberation.
II.Reproduction of the Motif of Filicide
Filicide is a common theme in literature and drama,often involving a mother killingher child for a specific purpose or in an extreme circumstance.This motif appears acrossvarious cultures and literary works,with one of the most famous examples being the ancient Greek tragedy Medea.In Euripides’Medea,the filicide is the climax of the play,revealing the complexity of human nature and moral dilemmas.This event holdssignificant importance in literary history and inspires many subsequent works.In AfricanAmerican literature,Toni Morrison’s Beloved is a profound exploration of slavery,memory,trauma,and maternal love.One of the most shocking moments in the novel iswhen the protagonist,Sethe,kills her own daughter to protect her from being enslavedagain.This act not only reveals the brutality of slavery but also reflects the moral dilemmasand psychological pressures faced by black mothers in extreme environments.Through thisevent,Morrison portrays a personal tragedy while also delivering a profound critique of thecruelty of slavery and its long-lasting effects on the black community.
The historical reasons behind black mothers committing filicide and the complexfactors involved are multifaceted,encompassing social,economic,psychological,andcultural aspects.During the period of slavery,black women often faced extreme abuse andexploitation.Their children could be sold at the whim of their owners or even separatedfrom them.In such an environment,some mothers might choose to end their children’slives to prevent them from enduring greater suffering.Long-standing racial oppression andviolence cause severe psychological trauma,prompting some mothers to make extremedecisions in desperate circumstances.Additionally,poverty and unemployment are majorfactors contributing to family stress and social issues.In situations of economic hardship,mothers may feel powerless to care for their children,leading to feelings of hopelessness.Lack of stable housing also contributes to overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions,increasing psychological stress and conflict.In some communities,the absence of familialand community support leaves mothers feeling isolated and helpless in the face ofadversity.All these factors contribute to the motivations behind the filicide committed byblack mothers.
Conclusion
Parks’“The Red Letter Plays”reveal a profound concern for the fate of contemporaryAfrican American women in the United States.These plays,which result from the“repetition and revision”of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel The Scarlet Letter,show thattime and history have not alleviated the tragic fate of black women.Instead,new and oldforms of oppression intertwine,ultimately leaving them with no hope and no way out.Parks in the plays uses the dramatic form to both repeat and repair certain characters andplot elements from Hawthorne’s novel.Through this process,she condemns the exclusionof African American narratives and histories,particularly those of African Americanwomen,from American literature and history.The plays also expose the unmentionedaspects of Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter,such as the persecution of slaves,whitesupremacy,and the rape of black women.Moreover,these plays reflect the author’s deepconcern for the fate of contemporary African American women in the United States.
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